Boulton, Watt and the wreck of the Admiral Gardiner
OchoReales
Posts: 1,500 ✭
I hope that the length of this post does not put anyone to sleep. 
All the content was taken from http://www.eicships.info/ships/s815/s815_index.html
Boulton, Watt and the Soho Mint (Birmingham, England).
In the mid-1700s, the Royal Mint was failing in its task to supply the national requirements for bronze coinage and there was a shortage. Privately issued tokens were being widely used instead and workers were now being paid in them, even though their buying power was often half their face value. Something had to be done to ease the shortage, and Matthew Boulton was commissioned to make some new copper coinage for the Royal Mint.
He established a reputation for making coinage of a consistent quality, and when problems arose with the manufacture of copper coinage in India, he was contracted to supply it, to be shipped out on the East India Company's ships Admiral Gardner and Britannia in 1809. Later, he was also to supply mint machinery to the Company's mints in Madras and Calcutta.
Matthew Boulton was typical of the new men of the Industrial Revolution. He combined the shrewdness of the entrepreneur with the foresight of the visionary. In later life he became a Fellow of the Royal Society, and was known as one of the more benevolent industrialists, well known for his philanthropy (he established a theatre in Birmingham in 1807). He died on 17th August 1809, eight months after the ship bearing his coins in the Admiral Gardner came to grief on the Goodwin Sands.
He started as a jeweller and brassware manufacturer, making buttons and other small brass goods in his Birmingham premises, the Soho Manufactory, which was established in Smethwick in 1761.
In 1768 Boulton met James Watt, and because of his need for something to power his factory, he became interested in Watt's invention, the steam engine. Boulton first gained a share in the patent on Watt's steam engine as part payment for a debt from a fellow industrialist who went bankrupt. In 1775 Boulton and Watt became partners in the steam engine business, obtaining a 25-year extension of the patent. One of the first applications of the new invention was to power the pumps to drain the Cornish tin mines.
In 1786 Boulton applied steam power to his coining presses in the Soho works. Up until that time, coins had been produced by hand processes, which basically meant that blanks were placed into a press by workers who then had to screw down the machinery by hand to produce coinage. This was a laborious and time consuming process, made worse by the fact that the blanks were roughly cut out in the first place and often had to be hammered flat first to fit in the machine.
The ship Admiral Gardner
East India Company ships were large and well equipped. They were often almost indistinguishable from Royal Naval vessels of the time, except that they were built for carrying cargo and were much less heavily armed. They also carried fewer crew than a naval vessel.
The Admiral Gardner's tonnage was 813, and she was built on the River Thames in 1796, probably at Blackwall. Her fatal voyage was her fifth to the east. She was named after Alan Gardner, the first Baron Gardner (1742–1809), who had a distinguished naval career until he became a Member of Parliament in 1796.
For most of the trading life of the East India Company, the ships were between 300 to 800 tons, although there were some larger vessels employed at the very beginning in the early 1600s, such as the Trades Increase and the Royal James, which were about 1000 tons, and very much later, when some vessels of 1200 tons were used, mostly for the China trade.
However, the sailing qualities of these sometimes proved to be difficult, so the tonnages reduced to about 500 tons by the 1640s and continued about this level until around 1700. From about 1708 the majority were between 300 and 400 tons, but new vessels taken on were larger as the trade grew more lucrative and more cargo space was needed.
However it is often difficult to assess what the true size of an EIC ship was, due to the company practice of "taking up" a ship at a tonnage of 499 tons, even if it was technically larger. This was a money-saving "fudge" to avoid the legal requirement to carry a chaplain on vessels of 500 tons and over! The records of the EIC, therefore, show an amazing number of vessels of exactly 499 tons for many years, and it is only by examining such documents as survive from the shipbuilders themselves that we are able to establish how large the ships actually were.
Unlike the VOC (Verenigde Oostindische Companie – the Dutch East India Company), the English company did not, for the most part, build its own ships. It chartered them on long term contracts from shipbuilders and shipowners. The role of what we would call today the Principal Managing Owner (the person who looked after the ship's interests, arranged the terms of its charter and fitting out) was called by the seemingly quaint name of Ship's Husband. The Admiral Gardner's husband was John Woolmore, who had risen from the ranks of seaman to captain in the service of the East India Company.
The Wreck
Captain William Eastfield to William Ramsey, Esq., India House
Deal, 26th January 1809
Sir, It is with extreme regret that I have to confirm the intelligence of the Honourable Company’s Agent here, as to the loss of the Admiral Gardner on the Goodwin Sands, yesterday morning; the painful circumstances attending which I here beg leave to state.
We sailed out of the Downs on the 24th, with the Carnatic and the Britannia, the wind from the eastward. On getting a little to the westward of the South Foreland, the wind drew to the south-east, and about dusk fell calm: it being flood tide, let go the anchor in fourteen fathom water. At 7pm, while giving the ship cable, the wind sprung up from the west-north-west. The people were sent up to hand sails immediately, but the wind increasing violently, they could not effect it. The people continued on the yard until 10pm: the pilot then feeling the lead, called out the anchor was coming home; the people were consequently called off the yards to give the ship cable, and when I was below seeing a little more service clapped on, a little before eleven I heard the pilot exclaim "cut away the sheet, the ship's on shore."
On coming upon deck, I inquired of the pilot what water we had, and he said five fathoms: I observed it was odd that he had not struck before, but repeated his orders to cut the sheet away, under the idea that the depth of water was true; and thinking it impossible to save the ship any other way, as I was aware, if it was so, that we were near the edge of the Goodwin.
The weather had come on so thick, with rain, that we had not seen the lights of the South Foreland since the wind came from the westward. The pilot went forward to see the sheet cut away, and in assisting to do it unfortunately had two of his fingers cut off, after which we was obliged to be laid on his bed, and was immediately delirious. I immediately took a cast of the lead myself, and found to my astonishment fourteen fathoms water. The ship brought ups, and we endeavoured again to hand the sails, which was partly accomplished. I intended, as the tide made to windward, to cut and put her head to the northward, but was induced to hold on as long as I could, to get in the remaining sail and clear away the spare anchor (having lost the best bower in the Gulls the preceding night) and we were employed bending the cable and clearing the anchor, when we first brought up; but from the people being called off, and all employed on other duties, we had not completed it.
The people were by this time absolutely worn down with fatigue. The ship still held on, and I was in hopes would continue so. At half past two, on the weather side slackening the sails then not all in, I thought it advisable to give the ship more cable, which we were effecting, when the small bower parted, broke all the stoppers on the sheet, and it run out to the clench. On the tide making, she brought the wind on the starboard bow, and I was afraid to cut, as I could not get her to cast any other way than to the southward, and judging we were near the Goodwin, was afraid, before I could get her wore round, that she would be on it. Under these circumstances, all I could hope for was that she would hold fast, which she did until half past six, when having left the deck to see how the cable was in the hawse, the chief mate sent down to say the anchor was coming home, and that we had only ten fathoms water. The people were previously stationed at the fore stay sail and topmast stay sail halyards, and the carpenters ready to cut away the mizen mast, the shrouds also braced for casting, and I gave immediate orders to cut the cable, when, on putting my head up the ladder, the quartermaster called out seven fathoms, and in one minute afterwards we had but five, and I saw the breakers under our lee.
Seeing it impossible to save the ship, I ordered the main and mizen masts to be cut away. In the act of doing it the ship struck, and the sea made a fair breach over us. At daylight I had the misfortune of witnessing her on the south sand heads. Myself, officers and crew, remained by the vessel until thirty-five minutes past three PM, when to the gallant exertions of the Deal men, at the risk of their lives, we were brought off, with the loss of only on man: the ship then full of water to the upper deck.
As I am not very well, I trust the Honourable Court will excuse any incorrectness in this statement, and remain,
Sir,
Your most obedient servant
W Eastfield
Salvaging the wreck.
In 1809, after the ship sank, some items were salvaged from the wreck, but the valuable cargoes deep in the hold were not reachable.
Around 1984, which was 175 years after the ship sank, a local fisherman reported that he thought he was snagging his nets on the Admiral Gardner, the fate of the ship being well known locally.
The divers who made the first dive on the wreck were amazed at what they saw. Exposed ribs, frames and decking outlined the shape of the ship. She was lying on a gently sloping sandy bottom at depths ranging between 45 and 60 feet of water. Along with her cargo of coins, some of which had spilled out from the barrels in which they were stowed, her cargo had consisted of a quantity of cannon balls, anchors, iron bars and copper ingots .
In 1985 the wreck was listed as being of historical interest, and a licence to dive on the site was granted to Richard Larn of Cornwall, the original discoverers of the wreck having formed themselves into a syndicate known as The East India Company Divers. The group, all very experienced in diving on wrecks on the Goodwin Sands, was formed to salvage and administer the legal aspects of any artefacts recovered. Some salvage was carried out in the summer of 1984, but due to weather problems and the special difficulties of working four miles offshore, the amount of coin recovered was minimal.
In June 1985, professional divers from a company called SAR Diving, who were working with the EIC diving group, succeeded in recovering a large quantity of copper coins, which were passed to the legal authority for such finds, the Receiver of Wreck. The most impressive find was an intact barrel which underwent preservation treatment at Portsmouth and was estimated to contain 28,000 coins.
Unfortunately, as is the case with many of these ventures, treasure (or here, at least, the copper variety) meant trouble. Strong disagreements developed between the parties involved about the methods employed on the wreck, some of which included controlled explosions. Diving on the site was suspended, and the site remains a protected wreck, with no-one currently licensed to dive on it.
The Admiral Gardner's booty.
The unit of the copper coinage of southern India was the Kasu – cash (a Tamil word meaning 'a coin').
The earliest reference which gives a rating to the cash circulating in Madras is of the year 1660/1661, when 80 cash was the equivalent of one gold fanam in the East India Company's books of account. After the fanam became a silver coin, this rate still continued. Other ratings of cash to the fanam have been noted but as the word 'cash' like 'pice' was used in a general sense to denote practically any copper coin which was current in a particular locality, it is not certain whether actual coins were intended or whether they were cash of account.
In 1678 the copper cash currency underwent some changes. The weight of the cash and its fanam rating was altered. A multiple cash was also introduced. Still in the same year other changes were made, but by the year 1680, the multiple had been demonetised and the only copper coin was the cash.
Two new copper coins were introduced in 1691, a dudu or 10 cash piece and a half dudu, and these together with the cash formed the copper currency throughout the 18th century.
At the instigation of the Court of Directors, a copper coinage consisting of four denominations – 20, 10, 5 and 1 cash, was struck in England in 1803 and the two higher values were repeated in 1808.
In the meantime, new copper coins were struck in the new Madras mint in 1807 in the range of denominations of 40, 20, 10, 5 and 2½ cash.
When the currency standard of the Madras presidency changed in 1818 from the pagoda to the Madras silver rupee, the old cash coins remained in circulation, the 20 cash piece as a pysa or pice, the 10 and 5 cash becoming a ½ and a ¼ pice respectively. The copper currency rating was 12 pice to 1 anna, 16 annas to 1 Madras rupee.
Underwater archaeology and the Admiral Gardner
The site of the Admiral Gardner is a designated area under the Protection of Wrecks Act 1973.
This Act empowers the Government to designate by Order the site of what is, or may prove to be, the wreck of a vessel which it considers should be protected from unauthorised interference because of its historical, archaeological or artistic importance. Forty-five sites in UK waters are currently designated.
The Order identifies the site and the extent of the 'restricted area' in which certain activities are prohibited except under the authority of a licence issued by the Department for Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS), Historic Scotland, Cadw (Welsh Historic Monument Executive Agency) or the Department of the Environment for Northern Ireland (DoE(NI)). These activities include "tampering with, damaging or removing any part of a wreck within the area indicated, or carrying out diving or salvage operations within the area or depositing anything (i.e. anchoring) on the seabed within the area without a special licence issued by the Secretary of State".
I found it quite interesting that Matthew Boulton and Alan Gardner both died the same year (1809) as the wreck of the ship that bears the former's coins (by design and manufacture) and the latter's name!
The coins from the wreck come in two denominations, 10 (X) and 20 (XX) Cash coins.
The coins and photos belong to me.
For more information on Alan Gardner, check out Wikipedia at; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Gardner,_1st_Baron_Gardner
All the content was taken from http://www.eicships.info/ships/s815/s815_index.html
Boulton, Watt and the Soho Mint (Birmingham, England).
In the mid-1700s, the Royal Mint was failing in its task to supply the national requirements for bronze coinage and there was a shortage. Privately issued tokens were being widely used instead and workers were now being paid in them, even though their buying power was often half their face value. Something had to be done to ease the shortage, and Matthew Boulton was commissioned to make some new copper coinage for the Royal Mint.
He established a reputation for making coinage of a consistent quality, and when problems arose with the manufacture of copper coinage in India, he was contracted to supply it, to be shipped out on the East India Company's ships Admiral Gardner and Britannia in 1809. Later, he was also to supply mint machinery to the Company's mints in Madras and Calcutta.
Matthew Boulton was typical of the new men of the Industrial Revolution. He combined the shrewdness of the entrepreneur with the foresight of the visionary. In later life he became a Fellow of the Royal Society, and was known as one of the more benevolent industrialists, well known for his philanthropy (he established a theatre in Birmingham in 1807). He died on 17th August 1809, eight months after the ship bearing his coins in the Admiral Gardner came to grief on the Goodwin Sands.
He started as a jeweller and brassware manufacturer, making buttons and other small brass goods in his Birmingham premises, the Soho Manufactory, which was established in Smethwick in 1761.
In 1768 Boulton met James Watt, and because of his need for something to power his factory, he became interested in Watt's invention, the steam engine. Boulton first gained a share in the patent on Watt's steam engine as part payment for a debt from a fellow industrialist who went bankrupt. In 1775 Boulton and Watt became partners in the steam engine business, obtaining a 25-year extension of the patent. One of the first applications of the new invention was to power the pumps to drain the Cornish tin mines.
In 1786 Boulton applied steam power to his coining presses in the Soho works. Up until that time, coins had been produced by hand processes, which basically meant that blanks were placed into a press by workers who then had to screw down the machinery by hand to produce coinage. This was a laborious and time consuming process, made worse by the fact that the blanks were roughly cut out in the first place and often had to be hammered flat first to fit in the machine.
The ship Admiral Gardner
East India Company ships were large and well equipped. They were often almost indistinguishable from Royal Naval vessels of the time, except that they were built for carrying cargo and were much less heavily armed. They also carried fewer crew than a naval vessel.
The Admiral Gardner's tonnage was 813, and she was built on the River Thames in 1796, probably at Blackwall. Her fatal voyage was her fifth to the east. She was named after Alan Gardner, the first Baron Gardner (1742–1809), who had a distinguished naval career until he became a Member of Parliament in 1796.
For most of the trading life of the East India Company, the ships were between 300 to 800 tons, although there were some larger vessels employed at the very beginning in the early 1600s, such as the Trades Increase and the Royal James, which were about 1000 tons, and very much later, when some vessels of 1200 tons were used, mostly for the China trade.
However, the sailing qualities of these sometimes proved to be difficult, so the tonnages reduced to about 500 tons by the 1640s and continued about this level until around 1700. From about 1708 the majority were between 300 and 400 tons, but new vessels taken on were larger as the trade grew more lucrative and more cargo space was needed.
However it is often difficult to assess what the true size of an EIC ship was, due to the company practice of "taking up" a ship at a tonnage of 499 tons, even if it was technically larger. This was a money-saving "fudge" to avoid the legal requirement to carry a chaplain on vessels of 500 tons and over! The records of the EIC, therefore, show an amazing number of vessels of exactly 499 tons for many years, and it is only by examining such documents as survive from the shipbuilders themselves that we are able to establish how large the ships actually were.
Unlike the VOC (Verenigde Oostindische Companie – the Dutch East India Company), the English company did not, for the most part, build its own ships. It chartered them on long term contracts from shipbuilders and shipowners. The role of what we would call today the Principal Managing Owner (the person who looked after the ship's interests, arranged the terms of its charter and fitting out) was called by the seemingly quaint name of Ship's Husband. The Admiral Gardner's husband was John Woolmore, who had risen from the ranks of seaman to captain in the service of the East India Company.
The Wreck
Captain William Eastfield to William Ramsey, Esq., India House
Deal, 26th January 1809
Sir, It is with extreme regret that I have to confirm the intelligence of the Honourable Company’s Agent here, as to the loss of the Admiral Gardner on the Goodwin Sands, yesterday morning; the painful circumstances attending which I here beg leave to state.
We sailed out of the Downs on the 24th, with the Carnatic and the Britannia, the wind from the eastward. On getting a little to the westward of the South Foreland, the wind drew to the south-east, and about dusk fell calm: it being flood tide, let go the anchor in fourteen fathom water. At 7pm, while giving the ship cable, the wind sprung up from the west-north-west. The people were sent up to hand sails immediately, but the wind increasing violently, they could not effect it. The people continued on the yard until 10pm: the pilot then feeling the lead, called out the anchor was coming home; the people were consequently called off the yards to give the ship cable, and when I was below seeing a little more service clapped on, a little before eleven I heard the pilot exclaim "cut away the sheet, the ship's on shore."
On coming upon deck, I inquired of the pilot what water we had, and he said five fathoms: I observed it was odd that he had not struck before, but repeated his orders to cut the sheet away, under the idea that the depth of water was true; and thinking it impossible to save the ship any other way, as I was aware, if it was so, that we were near the edge of the Goodwin.
The weather had come on so thick, with rain, that we had not seen the lights of the South Foreland since the wind came from the westward. The pilot went forward to see the sheet cut away, and in assisting to do it unfortunately had two of his fingers cut off, after which we was obliged to be laid on his bed, and was immediately delirious. I immediately took a cast of the lead myself, and found to my astonishment fourteen fathoms water. The ship brought ups, and we endeavoured again to hand the sails, which was partly accomplished. I intended, as the tide made to windward, to cut and put her head to the northward, but was induced to hold on as long as I could, to get in the remaining sail and clear away the spare anchor (having lost the best bower in the Gulls the preceding night) and we were employed bending the cable and clearing the anchor, when we first brought up; but from the people being called off, and all employed on other duties, we had not completed it.
The people were by this time absolutely worn down with fatigue. The ship still held on, and I was in hopes would continue so. At half past two, on the weather side slackening the sails then not all in, I thought it advisable to give the ship more cable, which we were effecting, when the small bower parted, broke all the stoppers on the sheet, and it run out to the clench. On the tide making, she brought the wind on the starboard bow, and I was afraid to cut, as I could not get her to cast any other way than to the southward, and judging we were near the Goodwin, was afraid, before I could get her wore round, that she would be on it. Under these circumstances, all I could hope for was that she would hold fast, which she did until half past six, when having left the deck to see how the cable was in the hawse, the chief mate sent down to say the anchor was coming home, and that we had only ten fathoms water. The people were previously stationed at the fore stay sail and topmast stay sail halyards, and the carpenters ready to cut away the mizen mast, the shrouds also braced for casting, and I gave immediate orders to cut the cable, when, on putting my head up the ladder, the quartermaster called out seven fathoms, and in one minute afterwards we had but five, and I saw the breakers under our lee.
Seeing it impossible to save the ship, I ordered the main and mizen masts to be cut away. In the act of doing it the ship struck, and the sea made a fair breach over us. At daylight I had the misfortune of witnessing her on the south sand heads. Myself, officers and crew, remained by the vessel until thirty-five minutes past three PM, when to the gallant exertions of the Deal men, at the risk of their lives, we were brought off, with the loss of only on man: the ship then full of water to the upper deck.
As I am not very well, I trust the Honourable Court will excuse any incorrectness in this statement, and remain,
Sir,
Your most obedient servant
W Eastfield
Salvaging the wreck.
In 1809, after the ship sank, some items were salvaged from the wreck, but the valuable cargoes deep in the hold were not reachable.
Around 1984, which was 175 years after the ship sank, a local fisherman reported that he thought he was snagging his nets on the Admiral Gardner, the fate of the ship being well known locally.
The divers who made the first dive on the wreck were amazed at what they saw. Exposed ribs, frames and decking outlined the shape of the ship. She was lying on a gently sloping sandy bottom at depths ranging between 45 and 60 feet of water. Along with her cargo of coins, some of which had spilled out from the barrels in which they were stowed, her cargo had consisted of a quantity of cannon balls, anchors, iron bars and copper ingots .
In 1985 the wreck was listed as being of historical interest, and a licence to dive on the site was granted to Richard Larn of Cornwall, the original discoverers of the wreck having formed themselves into a syndicate known as The East India Company Divers. The group, all very experienced in diving on wrecks on the Goodwin Sands, was formed to salvage and administer the legal aspects of any artefacts recovered. Some salvage was carried out in the summer of 1984, but due to weather problems and the special difficulties of working four miles offshore, the amount of coin recovered was minimal.
In June 1985, professional divers from a company called SAR Diving, who were working with the EIC diving group, succeeded in recovering a large quantity of copper coins, which were passed to the legal authority for such finds, the Receiver of Wreck. The most impressive find was an intact barrel which underwent preservation treatment at Portsmouth and was estimated to contain 28,000 coins.
Unfortunately, as is the case with many of these ventures, treasure (or here, at least, the copper variety) meant trouble. Strong disagreements developed between the parties involved about the methods employed on the wreck, some of which included controlled explosions. Diving on the site was suspended, and the site remains a protected wreck, with no-one currently licensed to dive on it.
The Admiral Gardner's booty.
The unit of the copper coinage of southern India was the Kasu – cash (a Tamil word meaning 'a coin').
The earliest reference which gives a rating to the cash circulating in Madras is of the year 1660/1661, when 80 cash was the equivalent of one gold fanam in the East India Company's books of account. After the fanam became a silver coin, this rate still continued. Other ratings of cash to the fanam have been noted but as the word 'cash' like 'pice' was used in a general sense to denote practically any copper coin which was current in a particular locality, it is not certain whether actual coins were intended or whether they were cash of account.
In 1678 the copper cash currency underwent some changes. The weight of the cash and its fanam rating was altered. A multiple cash was also introduced. Still in the same year other changes were made, but by the year 1680, the multiple had been demonetised and the only copper coin was the cash.
Two new copper coins were introduced in 1691, a dudu or 10 cash piece and a half dudu, and these together with the cash formed the copper currency throughout the 18th century.
At the instigation of the Court of Directors, a copper coinage consisting of four denominations – 20, 10, 5 and 1 cash, was struck in England in 1803 and the two higher values were repeated in 1808.
In the meantime, new copper coins were struck in the new Madras mint in 1807 in the range of denominations of 40, 20, 10, 5 and 2½ cash.
When the currency standard of the Madras presidency changed in 1818 from the pagoda to the Madras silver rupee, the old cash coins remained in circulation, the 20 cash piece as a pysa or pice, the 10 and 5 cash becoming a ½ and a ¼ pice respectively. The copper currency rating was 12 pice to 1 anna, 16 annas to 1 Madras rupee.
Underwater archaeology and the Admiral Gardner
The site of the Admiral Gardner is a designated area under the Protection of Wrecks Act 1973.
This Act empowers the Government to designate by Order the site of what is, or may prove to be, the wreck of a vessel which it considers should be protected from unauthorised interference because of its historical, archaeological or artistic importance. Forty-five sites in UK waters are currently designated.
The Order identifies the site and the extent of the 'restricted area' in which certain activities are prohibited except under the authority of a licence issued by the Department for Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS), Historic Scotland, Cadw (Welsh Historic Monument Executive Agency) or the Department of the Environment for Northern Ireland (DoE(NI)). These activities include "tampering with, damaging or removing any part of a wreck within the area indicated, or carrying out diving or salvage operations within the area or depositing anything (i.e. anchoring) on the seabed within the area without a special licence issued by the Secretary of State".
I found it quite interesting that Matthew Boulton and Alan Gardner both died the same year (1809) as the wreck of the ship that bears the former's coins (by design and manufacture) and the latter's name!
The coins from the wreck come in two denominations, 10 (X) and 20 (XX) Cash coins.
The coins and photos belong to me.
For more information on Alan Gardner, check out Wikipedia at; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Gardner,_1st_Baron_Gardner
Lurker since '02. Got the seven year itch!
Gary
Gary
0
Comments
Doggedly collecting coins of the Central American Republic.
Visit the Society of US Pattern Collectors at USPatterns.com.
Ocho-fascinating post.
is that you end up being governed by inferiors. – Plato
Not correct to call them pennies - i understand - but good looking pics great color.
You're doing fine. Nice collection too.
BourseChair 3rd Sunday Coin Show
www.ftlauderdalecoinclub.com
www.magicvisionphoto.com
Gary
Both Charles Fox and Horne Tooke appear on a number of Conder tokens.
Middlesex Political & Social Series D&H #226
One of my Charles Fox tokens
Middlesex Political & Social Series D&H #225
Collecting:
Conder tokens
19th & 20th Century coins from Great Britain and the Realm